Communication Disorders

	Language Disorders/Delay
	Articulation Disorders
	Hearing Impairments
	Dysphonias
	Neurological Communication Disorders
	Dyslexia
	Dysfluency

Language Disorders/Delay
Causes:	Inadequate language inputs during critical period of language development, hearing impairments, mental retardation, autism, attention deficit disorders, etc.
Symptoms:	Comprehension deficits (e.g. unable to understand instructions or inappropriate answers to questions); Expression deficits (e.g. short and incomplete sentences or insufficient vocabularies).
Remediation:	Through language-rich activities, children;s comprehension and expression will be improved to the level equivalent to children at the same mental age; Parents and caretakers will be trained on skills promoting children's language development.

Articulation Disorders
Causes:	Speech delay, hearing impairments, oromotor impairments, cleft lip and palate, affecting by incorrect articulation models, etc.
Symptoms:	Imprecise speech sounds in children older than four years of age (e.g. produce 'gate' as 'date', produce 'tea' as 'key' or produce 'pig'as 'big')； Unintelligible speech
Remediation:	Through phonology related activities, children will be trained to produce sounds in speech accurately; Parents and caretakers will be trained on skills facilitating children's accurate articulations.

Hearing Impairments
Causes:	Children: Genetics, maternal infection, meningitis, otitis media, etc.; Adults: Otitis media, prolonged exposure to noisy environment, otosclerosis, presbycusis, etc.
Symptoms:	Hearing loss limits the reception of language, inducing language disorders/delay, articulation disorders, dysphonias and other communication disorders.
Remediation:	Promote optimal use of residual hearing in children with hearing impairments so as to improve auditory ability; Develop verbal communication in children with hearing impairments; Improve speech intelligibility, precision of articulation and voicing skills in persons with hearing impairments; Offer advice and counseling on education options for children with hearing impairments.

Dysphonias
Causes:	Voice misuse and overuse, neurological impairments, vocal nodules/polyps, vocal fold paralysis, emotional disturbance, etc.
Symptoms:	Hoarse voice, feeling of short of breath, vocal fatigue, discomfort during voicing, pitch instability, loudness instability, etc.
Remediation:	Reduce abusive vocal behaviors; Reduce laryngeal muscle tension; Perform training on respiratory and phonation skills, e.g. abdominal breathing, breathing-phonation coordination, resonance training, pitch and loudness control, etc.

Neurological Communication Disorders
Causes:	Stroke, traumatic brain injury (resulting from surgery, road accident, etc.), brain tumor, infection, Parkinson's disease, etc.
Symptoms:	Symptoms of neurological communication disorders vary significantly among patients according to site of lesion and severity; Aphasia Unable to follow commands, inappropriate answers to questions, disorganized conversational speech, reading and writing difficulties, etc.; Dysarthria Low speech intelligibility caused by muscular impairment； Apraxia of Speech Wrong production of speech sounds caused by the inability to execute purposeful movements despite normal muscle tone and coordination.
Remediation:	Enhance language comprehension and expression; Improve control on oromotor musculature; Develop augmentative and alternative communication for persons with limited verbal communication ability; Assist family and caretakers to develop effective communication strategies.

Dyslexia
Causes:	Genetics, etc.
Symptoms:	Difficulty in reading caused by impaired ability in relating sound, shape, and meaning in written language; Poor hand-writing and frequent mistakes in writing, e.g. letter reversals ('b' for 'd'); Avoid reading aloud and writing, poor academic results.
Remediation:	Dyslexia is not a disease; there is no cure; With proper diagnosis and appropriate instruction, e.g. sensory integration and symbol mastery, individuals who are dyslexic can succeed in school and later as working adults.

Dysfluency
Causes:	There may be four factors contributing to the development of stuttering: genetics ( approximately 60% of those who stutter have a family member who does also); child development (children with other speech and language problems or developmental delays are more likely to stutter); neurophysiology ( recent research has shown that people who stutter process speech and language in different areas of the brain than those who do not stutter); and family dynamics ( high expectations and fast-paced lifestyles can contribute to stuttering). Stuttering may occur when a combination of factors comes together and may have different causes in different people. It is probable that what causes stuttering differs from what makes it continue or get worse.
Symptoms:	Repetitions (li-li-like this) Prolongations (lllllike this) Blockage, i.e. Abnormal stoppages (no sound) of sounds and syllables.
Remediation:	For adults who stutter, speech therapists use an eclectic approach, tailored to suit the needs of each individual. Therapy consists of training a new way of talking. Rate of speech is manipulated and monitored. New breathing patterns are established for optimal phrasing. Initiation of speech is slow and easy, and troublesome sounds are targeted. Continuous phonation and airflow are practiced. Relaxation and breath control are introduced. Clients receive treatment in individual sessions, but group treatment is also recommended.